Europe¶
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Great Britain¶- Coins
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After the Romans left Great Britain, the island was pretty much overrun by assorted peoples who established assorted kingdoms, while many of the original Britons found themselves living in Scotland and Wales. It took the Danish King Canute to unite all the kingdoms in the 11th century, just in time for Duke William II of Normandy to conquer the land. The Normans used their well-practiced and clever skills to assimilate into the local population and help develop the language and culture of Great Britain. Henry VIII (1509-47) was the first king to turn his attention to the sea in a big way. This would result in Great Britain becoming a world power by the time of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). By the time the 19th century was in full-swing, Great Britain had travelled the globe building one of the biggest empires ever seen. This lasted until the 20th century, when two world wars exhausted Great Britain's resources and set the stage for independence in the colonies. Great Britain lies between latitudes 50-59°N, but is not as cold as other areas that far north because of the Gulf Stream which moderates the temperature.
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Greece¶- Coins
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Greece was the site of the first European civilizations, beginning with the Minoans (2600-1450 BCE) and also Mycenae (1600-1100 BCE). After a bit of a dark period, Greek city-states became established around 800 BCE. By the fifth century BCE, Greece was at a cultural peak that still reverberates through western culture to this day. Since the Greeks were so busy with art, culture, and learning they were an easy take-over target for the Romans in the second and first century BCE. But while the Romans may have been in charge, it was highly developed Greek culture that continued to dominate.
By the time the Roman Empire was split in two, Greece became part of the eastern Byzantine Empire which was highly Greek in nature. The fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 paved the way for the Ottoman conquest of Greece. The Ottomans ruled Greece until the Greeks rebelled in 1821, finally gaining independence in 1829. Greece had an on-again off-again monarchy in the first half of the 20th century, and was invaded by Italy in 1940 followed by Germany in 1941. In 1967 a military junta took control and suspended the constitution. In 1974 the monarchy was abolished by plebiscite and the Hellenic Republic -- the third republic in Greek history -- was established. Greece's accomplishments in western culture could fill a library and the country is a major tourist destination.
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Guernsey¶- Coins
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The Balliwick of Guernsey is an island (and several smaller isles) in the English Channel about 30km from the coast of France. The total area is less than 200 sq.km. with a population of 65,031 (2004). The islands are dotted with prehistoric megalithic tombs (dolmens) and stone monoliths (menhirs) which suggests that neolithic farmers lived here thousands of years ago. Militant monks from Normandy built here before the Norman conquest of 1066, and since that invasion Guernsey has belonged to Britain (except for a 5 year German occuption during WWII). In Guernsey, Queen Elizabeth II is not known as the Head of State, but rather as the Duke of Normandy. British acts of parliament do not apply to Guernsey, unless the parliament specifically names the island.
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Hungary¶- Coins
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Hungary is a landlocked country in central Europe that joined the European Union in 2004. Founded by the Magyars in the 9th century, the ancient kingdom of Hungary stretched to the Baltic, Black, and Mediterranean Seas by the 14th century. By the 15th century, under the rule of king Matthias Corvinus, Hungary was an important artistic and cultural centre in the European Renaissance. In the next century, Hungary would lose its independence to the Ottoman Empire, but not all of the country went to the Habsburgs. Austria -- ruled by Hungarian kings at the time -- took some western territory, and territory in the east became the independent Principality of Transylvania. Austria and its allies would retake Hungary by the end of the 17th century, and by 1867 Hungary achieved autonomy as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.With the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I, Hungary would enter some turbulent times, including the loss of two-thirds of its territory and half the population. Hungary sided with Germany during World War II, but was still occupied by German troops who imposed a pro-Nazi dictatorship. The Soviets kicked the Nazis out in 1945 and helped bring the communist minority to power, leading to a Soviet-style People's Republic in 1949. In 1989, Hungary would become the Republic of Hungary. Today the culture of Hungary is diverse and varied. A list of Hungarian inventions includes holography, the match, the theory of the hydrogen bomb, the ballpoint pen, Rubik's Cube, BASIC, and non-Euclidean geometry.
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Iceland¶- Coins
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Iceland is the 18th largest island in the world, and is just south of the Arctic Circle. The interior of this volcanic island is a frozen desert, with most of the people living along the fjord-studded 4,970km coastline. Iceland is a geological hotspot, with active volcanoes and many geysers. Geothermal and hydroelectric power are abundant in the country.Iceland was first settled by Norwegians in the 9th century, and became an independent republic in 930. The Althingi -- the Icelandic parliament -- was founded the same year, and is the oldest acting parliament in the world. It operated continuously from 930 to 1799, then took a short break, resuming in 1844. Iceland became a colony of Norway in 1262, then was ruled by Denmark in 1387 when the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark united. That union dissolved in 1814, and Iceland became a Danish colony again. Independence was achieved in 1918, and Iceland maintained a personal union with Denmark.
During World War II, Denmark was occupied by Germany while Iceland was occupied by the Allies until the current republic was founded in 1944. Iceland joined NATO in 1949 and signed an agreement with the United States in 1951 to take care of Iceland's defense. Iceland is one of the ten richest countries in the world, based on GDP per capita. The economy was heavily based on fishing, but has expanded into travel and service industries, and assorted industry. Iceland's literacy rate is among the highest in the world and the love of various intellectual pursuits is widespread.
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Ireland¶- Coins
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Ireland (the island) is the third largest island in Europe. Ireland (the country) covers over 80% of the island. The north-east part of the island is "Northern Island" which is part of Great Britain.
The area was covered with ice during the last ice age, and stone age settlers arrived sometime after 8000 BCE. Culture on the island progressed through the Mesolithic, high Neolithic, and the Bronze age (c. 2500 BCE). The Iron Age in Ireland is associated with the Celts, who may have conquered the island between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE. However, many scholars now favour cultural diffusion over colonization. To Rome, the island was known as Hibernia, but it is unclear what relationship Rome had with the many tribes on the island.
According to legend, St. Patrick arrived in 432 CE and worked to convert the inhabitants to Christianity, eventually leading to the collapse of the druid tradition. Ireland would become a centre of high-learning during the Early Middle Ages. During this time latin learning and Christian theology flourished, and many cultural treasures were produced, such as the Book of Kells. This period was interrupted in the 9th century by 200 years of Viking invasions and warfare, until the vikings eventually settled down (in Ireland).
In 1172, King Henry II of England claimed Irish lands, based on a papal bull that said he could. English influence would slowly expand until 1801 when the Act of Union created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In the 1840s, the Great Famine killed at least one million Irish people, and forced another million to emigrate.
The late 19th and early 20th century was marked by an unsuccessful campaign for Irish home rule, which lead to militant separatism. The Irish-Anglo war of 1922 lead to 26 counties seceding from Great Britain and forming the Irish Free State. A civil war followed, and the Irish republic was declared in 1949. The state was plagued by poverty until the near the end of the 20th century when Ireland enjoyed unprecedented economic success. Today, Ireland is a major contributor in the European Union, and more people are moving to Ireland, rather than moving away.
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Isle of Man¶- Coins
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The Isle of Man is a 588 sq.km island located in the Irish Sea in the very centre of the British Isles. It is not a part of the United Kingdom, but is a Crown Dependency. The island was a Viking outpost/kingdom from 700-900 CE, but was occupied long before that as evidenced by prehistoric artifacts and monuments. The island was the site of the "Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles" from 1079. King Magnus VI of Norway gave the island to Scotland in 1266, and it came under English control in the 14th century.
In 1765 Britain purchased the rights and title to the island. The Isle of Man has the oldest continuous parliament in the world -- the Tynwald -- founded in 979 CE. The island's culture is heavily influenced by its Celtic and Norse origins. The ancient Manx language which came close to dying out is being revived on the island and taught in its schools. The national motto is Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand. This motto is represented in the ancient Triskelion, which has been a symbol of the island for centuries. The Isle of Man even has its own breed of cat: The Manx Cat was common on the island three centuries ago, and has been exported to the rest of the world. Offshore banking and tourism are two cornerstones of the island's economy. If you wish to visit, you can check out this web site, as well as this pub guide.
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Italy¶- Coins
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Italy is in southern Europe and is composed of the Italian peninsula (the big boot), and two large islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily and Sardinia). Starting with the Greeks in the 8th century BCE, Italy has been the site of many important cultures and civilizations that have influenced the development of the entire Mediterranean area over the centuries, as well as Europe. The Etruscan Civilization was well developed by the time the Roman Empire began its rise in the area. Italy played a central role in the development of science and culture during the middle ages and Renaissance, and today is home to the world's greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
In 1861, King Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia assumed the title of King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy. Rome remained under the control of the Papacy for a decade, before uniting with Italy. (The Vatican remains an independent enclave surrounded by Rome. Italy also contains the indepdendent country of San Marino within its borders.)
The Italians call their country Belpaese, which means "beautiful country."
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Lithuania¶- Coins
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Lithuania is located north of Poland, on the Baltic sea in northeastern Europe, and was officially born on July 6, 1253 with the crowning of Mindaugas as King of Lithuania. The country became a major power during the middle ages, and by the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania extended across eastern Europe, from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland -- both ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty -- formally joined together to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which would last until 1791. In 1795, Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian empire, and in 1918 a much smaller Lithuania declared independence.
The country was plagued by territorial disputes with both Poland and Germany from the beginning, and in 1940 during World War II, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Lithuania. Later, Germany would occupy the country, during which time it is estimated that 90% of Lithuanian Jews were killed, the worst death rate of the holocaust. The Soviet Union retook the country in 1945, and held it until 1990 when Lithuania became the first Soviet Republic of the era to declare independence. The Soviets attempted to suppress the independence movement, but finally left in 1993. Lithuania joined the United Nations in 1991, and the European Union in 2004.
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Macedonia¶- Coins
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Shortly after World War II, Yugoslavia set the borders and recognized the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as a separate nation within Yugoslavia. In 1991, the Republic of Macedonia peacefully seceded from Yugoslavia. However, Macedonia's neighbour to the south, Greece, took issue with the name since there was already a region in northern Greece known as Macedonia. Further, Macedonia is also the name given to a loosely defined geographical (and historical) region of the Balkan peninsula in south-eastern Europe. Because of the naming dispute, the United Nations has agreed to refer to the country as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (or FYR Macedonia for short).
Despite this ongoing name dispute, Greece and Macedonia are cooperating and Greece is the most important foreign investor in the country with over half the total investments. The original name comes from the ancient kingdom of Macedon, which was briefly the most powerful state in the ancient near east after Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world. Because of its ancient history, Macedonia has a rich cultural heritage, particularly in religious architecture and art. Its thousands of square metres of beautifully preserved Byzantine fresco paintings are among the best in the world [example]. The country also features perfectly preserved monasteries and churches, particularly from the 11th and 15th-16th centuries. Macedonia is a candidate for membership in the European Union.
