Europe¶
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Albania¶- Coins
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After the collapse of the Roman empire, Albania was overrun by Goths, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. In 1443 the hero Skanderbeg established independence. It wasn't long-lived though -- the Turks were back 25 years later and Albania remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for 400 years. There was an independence revolt in 1912, Italy moved in during 1939, Germany took a turn in 1943, and communists took over the following year. They hung on until 1992 before getting the boot.
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Andorra¶- Coins
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Andorra is a very tiny country on the slopes of the Pyrenees Mountains on the border of France and Spain. Luckily, it's on the sunny side of the mountains. Tradition says that Charlemagne granted Andorra independence in 806 for their help battling the Moors. The French and Spanish apparently respected that and the Andorrans enough to cooperate and share the task of looking out for Andorra. They started this cooperative task in 1278, and apparently continue to this day.
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Austria¶- Coins
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Austria is in central Europe and has lots of mountains. The area was part of the Roman Empire, and was later overrun with various peoples (Huns, Rugii, Lombards, Ostrogoths, Bavarii, Avars, and Franks, in that order). Around the middle of the thirteenth century, German King Rudolf I of Hapsburg gave the area to his boys, and the 'Hapsburgs' ruled Austria into the twentieth century. There was a bit of messing around in World War I, then again in World War II, when Austria became part of Germany in 1938. The Allied Forces occupied the country after the war until 1955, when Austria became an independent Republic sworn to neutrality. Austria joined the European Union in 1995 and the Euro monetary system in 1999. Austria is a representative democracy.
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Belgium¶- Coins
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Belgium has been the site of many battles through the years between the European powers, earning it the nickname "the cockpit of Europe." Upheavals in the area can be traced back to the first century BCE, when the Roman Republic took over the area. Belgium is linguistically divided with Dutch dominant in the north and French in the south. There is also a German-speaking minority in the east. This has resulted in many heated and divisive political debates. The largest diamond trading centre in the world is located in Antwerp in the north. Belgium was one of the founding members of the European Union and is the site of its headquarters.
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Bulgaria¶- Coins
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Bulgaria is one of Europe's oldest countries. The kingdom of Bulgaria was established in 681 when the Bulgars, a tribe from Asia, moved in and merged with the local populations. A significant European power by the ninth century, Bulgaria had some ups and downs with the Byzantine Empire before being overrun by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 14th century. By 1908, Bulgaria was a fully independent kingdom again. Shortly after, it became involved in the Balkan Wars, then fought on the losing side in both world wars. It is important to note that Bulgaria refused to comply with Germany's 1943 resolution to deport all Jews to Auschwitz. Instead, Bulgaria choose to protect and save the 50,000 Jewish members of the community. After WWII, Bulgaria fell into the Soviet camp, where it remained until 1990 when multi-party elections were held. Bulgaria is set to join the European Union on January 1, 2007.
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Croatia¶- Coins
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Croatia was part of Hungary until it helped found the "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes" in 1918. It wasn't until 1929 that they came up with a slightly shorter name: Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Hitler proceeded to crush Yugoslavia after a coup overthrew the pro-Nazi regime, and the area of Croatia became a fascist puppet-state called the Independent State of Croatia. By 1947, Croatia was once again part of the Yugoslav Republic. Croatia declared independence in 1991, and spent the next five years bitterly fighting with both Yugoslavia and separtists within its own borders. The end of the fight saw prominent officials in charge of Croatian offensives charged with crimes against humanity. In 1998, the UN helped to peacefully unite the rest of the country. Croatia has a rich cultural heritage stretching over 1,300 years. Nikola Tesla, the inventor of wireless radio and AC electricity, was a Croatian. Croatia is a rich source of art, literature, music, and the home of the necktie.
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Danzig¶- Coins
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Freie Stadt Danzig -- Free City of Danzig -- today is the city of Gdansk, Poland's sixth largest city and most important port on the Baltic Sea. The city is at the mouth of the Mot?awa river, part of a waterway that connects 60% of Poland's land. Its history is long and colourful and worth reading (link below). Here are some key points: The original city first gained autonomy in the early 13th century when it was granted by Swantopolk II of Pomerania. It thrived, but was the site of a massacre in 1308, when the Teutonic Knights reduced most of the city to rubble. The 16th and 17th century were the golden age for Gadansk, with thriving trade and development of a rich culture. Wars in the 18th century messed things up significantly. The city became part of Prussia in 1793 and remained Prussian until 1919, except for a few short years (1807-1815) when it became autonomous for the second time as the Free City of Danzig. Following World War I the League of Nations made Gdansk the Free City of Danzig once again. Unfortunately, the city became a flash-point for World War II, offering the pretext for German invasion. It is estimated that 90% of the city was destroyed and 40% of the pre-war population killed due to the war. Toward the end, the Red Army occupied the city. With Soviet backing, Poland proceeded to kick out all the Germans once the war had ended. The old city was rebuilt in the 1960s and 70s. In 1970, anti-government demonstrations in Gdansk lead to the fall of Poland's communist leader. A decade later, it was the birthplace of the Solidarity movement that saw the fall of communist party rule. Solidarity's leader, Lech Wa??sa went on to become the president of Poland. Gdansk is still working on building back some of its rich cultural heritage.
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France¶- Coins
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France is a founding member of both the United Nations and the European Union. With a territory stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel, it is the largest country in the European Union, and the fifth largest economy on earth. The area of France is very close the area of ancient Gaul. This same area was ruled by Charlemagne's descendents from 843 to 987. After that, a series of dynasties consolidated and strengthened the area until it reached its peak in the 17th century under the reign of Louis XIV. Louis -- the Sun King -- reigned over France for 72 years (1643-1715). Actually, he was four years old at the start, so he didn't really get going until after his 21st birthday, but he made up for lost time by consolidating his power by reducing the power of others, including the church and the nobility. Louis' extravagances, along with a series of costly wars, started the slide from the peak that finally brought the monarchy to an end with the French Revolution in 1792. Only seven years into the First Republic, Napoleon came on the scene and siezed power not only of France but many of its neighbours. It would take until 1815 to put him down. France then tried monarchy again, and went through a series of Republics and two world wars before arriving at the present day Fifth Republic founded by Charles de Gaulle in 1958. Since then, France has helped strengthen and unify Europe, particularly through its reconciliation and cooperation with Germany, although these goals were set back in 2005 when French citizens voted against the European Constitution.
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Germany, 3rd Reich¶- Coins
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The Third Reich -- or Nazi Germany -- refers to Germany under Hitler and the Nazi Party between 1933-1945. The reasons for Hitler's rise to power are too complex for discussion here, but few would argue that the legacy is one of the darkest marks in the history of mankind.
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Gibraltar¶- Coins
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Gibraltar is 6.4 sq.km. British colony located on the southern most tip of Spain at the western opening to the Mediterranean Sea. It is this location that gives it stategic significance, and has caused many scuffles over its possession. Gibraltar was first fortified by the Muslims who took it from Spain in 711. It would take until 1309 for Spain to get it back, only to lose it 24 years later to the Moors. This time, it only took Spain 123 years to get it back and they hung on until 1704, when they lost it to British and Dutch forces during the Spanish War of Succession. Britain has hung onto Gibraltar ever since. Apparently Spain has tried to take it back by being not-so-nice to the inhabitants of Gibraltar, but it didn't work out too well. In 1967 the inhabitants of Gibraltar voted 12,138 to 44 to remain under British rule. A little upset with the result, Spain completely closed the border and severed all communications. It would take until 1985 for the border to be fully reopened. Later talks suggested joint sovereignty between Spain and the UK, but Gibraltar voters rejected that idea, this time by 17,900 votes to 187. Geographically, Gibraltar is a fabulous rock rising out of the Mediterranean and is identified in Greek Mythology as one of the pillars of Hercules.
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Great Britain¶- Coins
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After the Romans left Great Britain, the island was pretty much overrun by assorted peoples who established assorted kingdoms, while many of the original Britons found themselves living in Scotland and Wales. It took the Danish King Canute to unite all the kingdoms in the 11th century, just in time for Duke William II of Normandy to conquer the land. The Normans used their well-practiced and clever skills to assimilate into the local population and help develop the language and culture of Great Britain. Henry VIII (1509-47) was the first king to turn his attention to the sea in a big way. This would result in Great Britain becoming a world power by the time of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). By the time the 19th century was in full-swing, Great Britain had travelled the globe building one of the biggest empires ever seen. This lasted until the 20th century, when two world wars exhausted Great Britain's resources and set the stage for independence in the colonies. Great Britain lies between latitudes 50-59°N, but is not as cold as other areas that far north because of the Gulf Stream which moderates the temperature.
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Greece¶- Coins
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Greece was the site of the first European civilizations, beginning with the Minoans (2600-1450 BCE) and also Mycenae (1600-1100 BCE). After a bit of a dark period, Greek city-states became established around 800 BCE. By the fifth century BCE, Greece was at a cultural peak that still reverberates through western culture to this day. Since the Greeks were so busy with art, culture, and learning they were an easy take-over target for the Romans in the second and first century BCE. But while the Romans may have been in charge, it was highly developed Greek culture that continued to dominate.
By the time the Roman Empire was split in two, Greece became part of the eastern Byzantine Empire which was highly Greek in nature. The fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 paved the way for the Ottoman conquest of Greece. The Ottomans ruled Greece until the Greeks rebelled in 1821, finally gaining independence in 1829. Greece had an on-again off-again monarchy in the first half of the 20th century, and was invaded by Italy in 1940 followed by Germany in 1941. In 1967 a military junta took control and suspended the constitution. In 1974 the monarchy was abolished by plebiscite and the Hellenic Republic -- the third republic in Greek history -- was established. Greece's accomplishments in western culture could fill a library and the country is a major tourist destination.
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Guernsey¶- Coins
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The Balliwick of Guernsey is an island (and several smaller isles) in the English Channel about 30km from the coast of France. The total area is less than 200 sq.km. with a population of 65,031 (2004). The islands are dotted with prehistoric megalithic tombs (dolmens) and stone monoliths (menhirs) which suggests that neolithic farmers lived here thousands of years ago. Militant monks from Normandy built here before the Norman conquest of 1066, and since that invasion Guernsey has belonged to Britain (except for a 5 year German occuption during WWII). In Guernsey, Queen Elizabeth II is not known as the Head of State, but rather as the Duke of Normandy. British acts of parliament do not apply to Guernsey, unless the parliament specifically names the island.
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Hungary¶- Coins
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Hungary is a landlocked country in central Europe that joined the European Union in 2004. Founded by the Magyars in the 9th century, the ancient kingdom of Hungary stretched to the Baltic, Black, and Mediterranean Seas by the 14th century. By the 15th century, under the rule of king Matthias Corvinus, Hungary was an important artistic and cultural centre in the European Renaissance. In the next century, Hungary would lose its independence to the Ottoman Empire, but not all of the country went to the Habsburgs. Austria -- ruled by Hungarian kings at the time -- took some western territory, and territory in the east became the independent Principality of Transylvania. Austria and its allies would retake Hungary by the end of the 17th century, and by 1867 Hungary achieved autonomy as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.With the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I, Hungary would enter some turbulent times, including the loss of two-thirds of its territory and half the population. Hungary sided with Germany during World War II, but was still occupied by German troops who imposed a pro-Nazi dictatorship. The Soviets kicked the Nazis out in 1945 and helped bring the communist minority to power, leading to a Soviet-style People's Republic in 1949. In 1989, Hungary would become the Republic of Hungary. Today the culture of Hungary is diverse and varied. A list of Hungarian inventions includes holography, the match, the theory of the hydrogen bomb, the ballpoint pen, Rubik's Cube, BASIC, and non-Euclidean geometry.
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Iceland¶- Coins
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Iceland is the 18th largest island in the world, and is just south of the Arctic Circle. The interior of this volcanic island is a frozen desert, with most of the people living along the fjord-studded 4,970km coastline. Iceland is a geological hotspot, with active volcanoes and many geysers. Geothermal and hydroelectric power are abundant in the country.Iceland was first settled by Norwegians in the 9th century, and became an independent republic in 930. The Althingi -- the Icelandic parliament -- was founded the same year, and is the oldest acting parliament in the world. It operated continuously from 930 to 1799, then took a short break, resuming in 1844. Iceland became a colony of Norway in 1262, then was ruled by Denmark in 1387 when the kingdoms of Norway and Denmark united. That union dissolved in 1814, and Iceland became a Danish colony again. Independence was achieved in 1918, and Iceland maintained a personal union with Denmark.
During World War II, Denmark was occupied by Germany while Iceland was occupied by the Allies until the current republic was founded in 1944. Iceland joined NATO in 1949 and signed an agreement with the United States in 1951 to take care of Iceland's defense. Iceland is one of the ten richest countries in the world, based on GDP per capita. The economy was heavily based on fishing, but has expanded into travel and service industries, and assorted industry. Iceland's literacy rate is among the highest in the world and the love of various intellectual pursuits is widespread.
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Ireland¶- Coins
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Ireland (the island) is the third largest island in Europe. Ireland (the country) covers over 80% of the island. The north-east part of the island is "Northern Island" which is part of Great Britain.
The area was covered with ice during the last ice age, and stone age settlers arrived sometime after 8000 BCE. Culture on the island progressed through the Mesolithic, high Neolithic, and the Bronze age (c. 2500 BCE). The Iron Age in Ireland is associated with the Celts, who may have conquered the island between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE. However, many scholars now favour cultural diffusion over colonization. To Rome, the island was known as Hibernia, but it is unclear what relationship Rome had with the many tribes on the island.
According to legend, St. Patrick arrived in 432 CE and worked to convert the inhabitants to Christianity, eventually leading to the collapse of the druid tradition. Ireland would become a centre of high-learning during the Early Middle Ages. During this time latin learning and Christian theology flourished, and many cultural treasures were produced, such as the Book of Kells. This period was interrupted in the 9th century by 200 years of Viking invasions and warfare, until the vikings eventually settled down (in Ireland).
In 1172, King Henry II of England claimed Irish lands, based on a papal bull that said he could. English influence would slowly expand until 1801 when the Act of Union created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
In the 1840s, the Great Famine killed at least one million Irish people, and forced another million to emigrate.
The late 19th and early 20th century was marked by an unsuccessful campaign for Irish home rule, which lead to militant separatism. The Irish-Anglo war of 1922 lead to 26 counties seceding from Great Britain and forming the Irish Free State. A civil war followed, and the Irish republic was declared in 1949. The state was plagued by poverty until the near the end of the 20th century when Ireland enjoyed unprecedented economic success. Today, Ireland is a major contributor in the European Union, and more people are moving to Ireland, rather than moving away.
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Isle of Man¶- Coins
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The Isle of Man is a 588 sq.km island located in the Irish Sea in the very centre of the British Isles. It is not a part of the United Kingdom, but is a Crown Dependency. The island was a Viking outpost/kingdom from 700-900 CE, but was occupied long before that as evidenced by prehistoric artifacts and monuments. The island was the site of the "Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles" from 1079. King Magnus VI of Norway gave the island to Scotland in 1266, and it came under English control in the 14th century.
In 1765 Britain purchased the rights and title to the island. The Isle of Man has the oldest continuous parliament in the world -- the Tynwald -- founded in 979 CE. The island's culture is heavily influenced by its Celtic and Norse origins. The ancient Manx language which came close to dying out is being revived on the island and taught in its schools. The national motto is Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand. This motto is represented in the ancient Triskelion, which has been a symbol of the island for centuries. The Isle of Man even has its own breed of cat: The Manx Cat was common on the island three centuries ago, and has been exported to the rest of the world. Offshore banking and tourism are two cornerstones of the island's economy. If you wish to visit, you can check out this web site, as well as this pub guide.
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Italy¶- Coins
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Italy is in southern Europe and is composed of the Italian peninsula (the big boot), and two large islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily and Sardinia). Starting with the Greeks in the 8th century BCE, Italy has been the site of many important cultures and civilizations that have influenced the development of the entire Mediterranean area over the centuries, as well as Europe. The Etruscan Civilization was well developed by the time the Roman Empire began its rise in the area. Italy played a central role in the development of science and culture during the middle ages and Renaissance, and today is home to the world's greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
In 1861, King Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia assumed the title of King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy. Rome remained under the control of the Papacy for a decade, before uniting with Italy. (The Vatican remains an independent enclave surrounded by Rome. Italy also contains the indepdendent country of San Marino within its borders.)
The Italians call their country Belpaese, which means "beautiful country."
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Lithuania¶- Coins
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Lithuania is located north of Poland, on the Baltic sea in northeastern Europe, and was officially born on July 6, 1253 with the crowning of Mindaugas as King of Lithuania. The country became a major power during the middle ages, and by the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania extended across eastern Europe, from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland -- both ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty -- formally joined together to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which would last until 1791. In 1795, Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian empire, and in 1918 a much smaller Lithuania declared independence.
The country was plagued by territorial disputes with both Poland and Germany from the beginning, and in 1940 during World War II, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Lithuania. Later, Germany would occupy the country, during which time it is estimated that 90% of Lithuanian Jews were killed, the worst death rate of the holocaust. The Soviet Union retook the country in 1945, and held it until 1990 when Lithuania became the first Soviet Republic of the era to declare independence. The Soviets attempted to suppress the independence movement, but finally left in 1993. Lithuania joined the United Nations in 1991, and the European Union in 2004.
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Macedonia¶- Coins
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Shortly after World War II, Yugoslavia set the borders and recognized the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as a separate nation within Yugoslavia. In 1991, the Republic of Macedonia peacefully seceded from Yugoslavia. However, Macedonia's neighbour to the south, Greece, took issue with the name since there was already a region in northern Greece known as Macedonia. Further, Macedonia is also the name given to a loosely defined geographical (and historical) region of the Balkan peninsula in south-eastern Europe. Because of the naming dispute, the United Nations has agreed to refer to the country as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (or FYR Macedonia for short).
Despite this ongoing name dispute, Greece and Macedonia are cooperating and Greece is the most important foreign investor in the country with over half the total investments. The original name comes from the ancient kingdom of Macedon, which was briefly the most powerful state in the ancient near east after Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world. Because of its ancient history, Macedonia has a rich cultural heritage, particularly in religious architecture and art. Its thousands of square metres of beautifully preserved Byzantine fresco paintings are among the best in the world [example]. The country also features perfectly preserved monasteries and churches, particularly from the 11th and 15th-16th centuries. Macedonia is a candidate for membership in the European Union.
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Malta¶- Coins
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The Republic of Malta is an archipelego in the Mediterranean 93 km south of Sicily, and was first settled by stone age people around 5,200 BCE. Due to its strategic location, Malta has a long and rich history with various groups and governments ruling the islands, starting with the Greeks in 700 BCE and ending with the British Empire in 1814. Independence was achived in 1964, and the Republic was formed ten years later. Malta has three World Heritage sites, most notably the Megalithic Temples which are the oldest free-standing structures in Europe.
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Monaco¶- Coins
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Monaco is an interesting city-state on the shore of the Mediterranean, surrounded by its neighbour France, who takes responsibility for its defence. A constitutional monarchy with just over 30,000 inhabitants, Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297. Today the country is known for tourism and its casino. The citizens are not allowed to gamble at the casino themselves, but they also do not have to pay any income tax. Combine the nice climate and scenery with the tax haven and you end up with a playground for the wealthy.
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Norway¶- Coins
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Norway is a country of incredible beauty and biological diversity, with its famous fjords along its huge North Atlantic coastline and 60,000 or more animal species in its large number of different habitats. The area has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years. The Viking age lasted from the 8th to 11th centuries, and sometime around the end of the 9th century the land was first united under one Viking king.Norway's economy underwent rapid expansion after World War II, first due mainly to shipping and later (1970s onward) due to oil and natural gas development. Today, Norway is the wealthiest country in the world with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation on earth. In August 2009 Norway's Government Pension Fund announced that it owned 1% of all the stocks in the world.
The people of Norway have twice rejected membership in the European Union. They are a founding member of NATO and the UN, to whom they are one of the largest financial contributors. Norway was an early adopter of women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. They placed second in the 2008 Environmental Performance Index and first in the 2009 Worldwide Press Freedom Index. (Along with Denmark, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden. By comparison, Canada ranks #19 and USA is #20.) The death penalty was abolished in 1902, and Norway has the lowest homicide rate in the world. A recent Gallup poll reveals that for 80% of Norway's citizens religion does not occupy an important place in their life, making Norway one of the most secular countries in the world.
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Poland¶- Coins
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Poland has a long history, so here are some basics: Polish state founded c. 966 with territory similar to present-day Poland; Kingdom of Poland formed in 1025; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwalth founded in 1569; Commonwalth collapses in 1795 and Poland is divided up between the Kingdom of Prussia, the Russian Empire, and Austria; Indepdendence regained in 1918 (Second Polish Republic); Occupied by Nazi Germany and Soviet Union during World War II, Poland loses over six million citizens during the war; People's Republic of Poland emerges after WWII under Soviet influence; Communist rule overthrown during 1989 revolution and Third Polish Republic begins.Over one-quarter of Poland's land area is covered by forest, and many animals that have died out in other parts of Europe survive in Poland. The country is also the most important breeding ground in Europe for migratory birds, with one-quarter of them getting it on in Poland.
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Russia¶- Coins
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With over 17 million square kilometers of territory, the Russian Federation is the largest country on earth by a wide margin. (Canada, the second largest country, has just under 10 million square kilometers.) And with over 142 million people (2010 est.), it is in the top ten countries for population.Russia's history starts between the 3rd to 8th centuries with the Vikings and charts a colourful course to the Russian Empire of the 18th century -- the third largest empire in history. Russia was the main member of the USSR (Soviet Union) until its collapse in 1991. Lots of problems, including numerous armed conflicts, plagued Russia in the final years of the 20th century, but the start of the 21st century saw a return to stability and renewed progress. Russia has an extremely strong history of excellence in arts and the sciences, as well as technology.
Is Russia in Europe or Asia? Well, both. Sort of. Most of its landmass is east of the Ural mountains, which would be considered Northern Asia. But most of its population, and capital city Moscow, are in Europe. And culturally, Russia is European rather than Asian. Therefore, it is listed under Europe.
